Trauma Therapy in Indianapolis, IN
At birth, their infants were smaller than expected. After 9 months, 38 of the woman and their infants were again examined. Those mothers with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and their infants as well had unusually low levels of the cortisol, which is a stress-related hormone. She concluded, "Now it looked like trauma leaves a trace in offspring even before they are born" (p. 52).
Research in the decades since has supported this conclusion. The trace seems to be left through epigenetic changes in the functioning of stress-related genes. It is undecided whether the changes are positive and/or negative. Do the epigenetic alterations cause more vulnerability or do they help offspring cope with difficult circumstances by prepping them for challenges? Outcomes may depend on the kinds of environments that offspring encounter. Also, it is helpful that psychological interventions can mitigate epigenetic changes with negative outcomes.